With superior coverage of standards and an emphasis on comprehensive reading instruction, Readingand Learning to Read, Seventh Edition, remains an active learning tool that encourages teachers to teach reading in ways that are both meaningful and reflective. This book promotes a comprehensive approach to teaching reading and writing with an emphasis on research-based best practices, integrating technology, and accommodating the needs of diverse and struggling learners.  This edition continues its commitment to preparing pre-service teachers for the ever-changing literacy classroom.  A focus on meeting the standards of today’s research-based environment and new concepts and practices that enhance professional development, as well as a wealth of practical examples and references that exemplify the IRA Standards for Reading Professionals, results in the most comprehensive and contemporary book on the market.

Table of Contents:
  Vacca   Features xvii Preface xxi CHAPTER 1 Knowledge and Beliefs About Reading 1 The Importance of Belief Systems 3 Different Beliefs, Different Instructional Decisions 4 Reading Instruction and Teachers’ Belief Systems 7   How Teachers Come to Know About Reading and Learning to Read 11 Constructing Personal Knowledge 12 Constructing Practical Knowledge 12 Constructing Professional Knowledge and Expertise 13   Cognitive Insights into Reading and Learning to Read 16 The Alphabetic Principle and Learning to Read 16 Schema Theory and Reading Comprehension 18 Metacognition and Learning 19 SELF-KNOWLEDGE 21 TASK KNOWLEDGE 21 SELF-MONITORING 21   Reading from a Language Perspective 22 Psycholinguistics and Reading 23 GRAPHOPHONEMIC SYSTEM 23 SYNTACTIC SYSTEM 23 SEMANTIC SYSTEM 23 Sociolinguistics and Reading 24   Models of Reading 25 Bottom-Up Models 26 Top-Down Models 27 Interactive Models 28   What About Struggling Readers and Teachers’ Knowledge and Beliefs About Reading? 28   Summary 29 Teacher Action Research 29 Related Web Sites 30 MyEducationLab 31 CHAPTER 2 Approaches to Reading Instruction 32 Belief Systems and Approaches to Literacy Instruction 35 Beliefs About Reading Interview 35 Theoretical Orientation to Reading Profile 38   Curriculum Perspectives 38 Bottom-Up Curricula 40 READERS AND TEXTBOOKS 40 THE FIRST-GRADE STUDIES 41 Top-Down Curricula 41 SOME PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING TOP-DOWN PRACTICES 41 CLASSROOM CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING 43   Instructional Approaches 43 The Basal Reading Approach 43 The Language-Experience Approach 45 Integrated Language Arts 46 Literature-Based Instruction 46 Technology-Based Instruction 47 Approaches and Strategies in Comprehensive Instruction 48   What About Struggling Readers and Approaches to Literacy Instruction? 53   Summary 53 Teacher Action Research 54 Related Web Sites 54 MyEducationLab 55   CHAPTER 3 Meeting the Literacy Needs of Diverse Learners 56 The Complexity of Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 59   Linguistic Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 60 Instructional Beliefs About Linguistic Diversity 61 Instructional Principles for Students Speaking Diverse Languages and Dialects 63 Instructional Strategies for Students Speaking Diverse Languages 64 SHELTERED ENGLISH ADAPTATIONS 66 INSTRUCTIONAL CONVERSATIONS 66 RESPONSE PROTOCOL 66 READING AND WRITING PRACTICES 68 CONTENT AREA PRACTICES 69 THEMATIC TEACHING 69 Dialects and Reading Strategies 70 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE AND MOTIVATION 70 CULTURALLY RELEVANT MATERIALS AND MOTIVATION 70 DIALECTICAL MISCUES 71 USING LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE 71   Cultural Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 71 Instructional Beliefs About Cultural Diversity 72 Instructional Principles for Students from Diverse Cultures 72 Instructional Strategies for Culturally Diverse Students 74 CONSIDER YOURSELF AND YOUR OWN BELIEFS AND EXPERIENCES WITH OTHER CULTURES 74 DETERMINING CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS 74 VALIDATING EACH CHILD’S EXPERIENCE 75 FOSTERING ETHNIC, NATIONAL, AND GLOBAL IDENTIFICATION 76 COLLABORATIVE COMMUNITIES 76 TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED INSTRUCTION 78 IMAGE MAKING 78 CHOOSING QUALITY MULTICULTURAL LITERATURE 78   Academic and Cognitive Diversity in Literacy Classrooms 80 Instructional Beliefs About Academic and Cognitive Diversity 81 Instructional Principles for Academic and Cognitive Diversity 83 INCLUSION 83 CURRICULUM COMPACTING 84 LITERACY COACHES 84 Instructional Strategies for Students with Diverse Academic and Cognitive Abilities 85 INQUIRY LEARNING 85 DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 86 NEW LITERACIES 86 RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI) 87 Programs and Strategies for Struggling Readers Who Are Academically and Cognitively Diverse 87   What About Struggling Readers and Their Diverse Academic and Cognitive Needs? 88   What About Standards, Assessment, and Diversity? 89   Summary 89 Teacher Action Research 90 Related Web Sites 90 MyEducationLab 91   CHAPTER 4 Early Literacy: From Birth to School 92 Children’s Development in Early Reading and Writing 95 Phases of Literacy Development 95 How Reading Develops 97 THE IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY INTERACTIONS 98 THE IMPORTANCE OF LITERATE ENVIRONMENTS 100 How Writing Develops 101 THE IMPORTANCE OF SCRIBBLING 102 THE IMPORTANCE OF INVENTED SPELLING 105 ADVANTAGES OF INVENTED SPELLING 105   Developmentally Appropriate Practices 106 Creating Literate Learning Environments 107 Designing Literacy-Related Play Centers 108 Exploring Print Through Language Experiences 112 TALKING, CREATING, SINGING, AND DANCING 112 ROLE PLAYING AND DRAMA 114 Reading to Children 115 SHARING BOOKS 116 REPEATING THE READING OF FAVORITE STORIES 116 PROVIDING ASSISTANCE AS NEEDED 117   What About Struggling Readers and Early Literacy? 118   What About Standards, Assessment, and Early Literacy? 119   Summary 119 Teacher Action Research 120 Related Web Sites 121 MyEducationLab 121 CHAPTER 5 Inviting Beginners into the Literacy Club 122 Emergent Literacy Programs for Beginners 124 Learning Literacy Through Storybooks 126 Big Books in U.S. Classrooms 127 Interactive Reading and Writing 129 INTERACTIVE READING 131 INTERACTIVE WRITING 133   Learning About the Relationships Between Speech and Print 134 Understanding the Uses of Written Language 134 PERPETUATING USES 135 REGULATORY, AUTHORITATIVE-CONTRACTUAL USES 136 INSTRUMENTAL USES 136 DIVERSION USES 137 PERSONAL USES 137 Connecting Speech and Print Through Language Experience 138 STEPS TO FOLLOW IN PRODUCING LANGUAGEEXPERIENCE STORIES 139 THE VALUE OF LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE 140   Learning About Features of Written Language 142 Linguistic Awareness 142 The Concepts About Print Test 143 Observing Children’s Emerging Literacy Accomplishments 143   Learning About Letters and Sounds 146 Recognizing Letters 147 Developing Phonemic Awareness 148 DEVELOPING PHONEMIC AWARENESS IN CHILDREN 150 ASSESSING PHONEMIC AWARENESS 154   What About Struggling Readers and the Literacy Club? 156   What About Standards, Assessment, and the Literacy Club? 156   Summary 157 Teacher Action Research 158 Related Web Sites 158 MyEducationLab 159   CHAPTER 6 Assessing Reading Performance 160 Toward a Corroborative Framework for Decision Making 163 Trends in Assessment 164 High-Stakes Testing 164 Authentic Assessment 165   Formal Assessment 168 Standardized Tests 169 TYPES OF TEST SCORES 170 TYPES OF TESTS 171 USES OF STANDARDIZED TEST RESULTS 171 Criterion-Referenced Tests 172   Informal Assessment 173 Informal Reading Inventories 173 ADMINISTERING AN IRI 174 RECORDING ORAL READING ERRORS 175 DETERMINING READING LEVELS 176 Analyzing Oral Reading Miscues 177 Running Records 181 ADMINISTERING A RUNNING RECORD 181 ANALYZING RUNNING RECORDS 183   Portfolio Assessment 186 Essential Elements of Portfolios 186 Implementing Portfolios in the Classroom 187 Kidwatching While Teaching 193 ANECDOTAL NOTES 193 CHECKLISTS 194 INTERVIEWING 195   Assessment Today and Tomorrow 196   What About Struggling Readers and Assessing Reading Performance? 196   What About Standards, Assessment, and Reading Performance? 197   Summary 197 Teacher Action Research 198 Related Web Sites 198 MyEducationLab 199 CHAPTER 7 Word Identification 200 Defining Word Identification 202   Phases of Development in Children’s Ability to Identify Words 205   Approaches and Guidelines for Teaching Phonics 207 Traditional Approaches 208 ANALYTIC PHONICS INSTRUCTION 208 SYNTHETIC PHONICS INSTRUCTION 209 LINGUISTIC PHONICS INSTRUCTION 209 Contemporary Approaches 209 ANALOGY-BASED INSTRUCTION 212 SPELLING-BASED INSTRUCTION 212 EMBEDDED PHONICS INSTRUCTION 213 GUIDELINES FOR CONTEMPORARY PHONICS INSTRUCTION 213   Strategies for Teaching Phonics 215 Consonant-Based Strategies 216 LETTER ACTIONS 216 FAVORITE FOODS 217 CONSONANT SUBSTITUTION 217 FLIP BOOKS 218 MAKING WORDS 218 MAKING AND WRITING WORDS 219 CUBE WORDS 220 DIGRAPH AND BLEND ACTIONS AND FOOD ASSOCIATIONS 220 DIGRAPH TONGUE TWISTERS 223 Analogy-Based Strategies 223 THE ANALOGY STRATEGY 224 RIMES IN NURSERY RHYMES 224 MAKING AND WRITING WORDS USING LETTER PATTERNS 225 HINK PINKS 225 Spelling-Based Strategies 226 WORD BANKS 226 WORD WALLS 226 WORD SORTING 227 HAVE-A-GO 227   Using Meaning and Letter—Sound Information to Identify Words 229 Strategies for Teaching Context 229 MODIFIED CLOZE PASSAGES 230 CLOZE WITH CHOICES GIVEN 230 GUESSING GAMES 231 INFERRING WORD MEANINGS THROUGH CONTEXT CLUES 231 Cross-Checking and Self-Monitoring Strategies 231   Using Structural Analysis to Identify Words 233 Strategies for Teaching Structural Analysis 233 WORD STUDY NOTEBOOK 233 WALL CHART CAROUSEL 234 COMPOUND WORD CUPS 234 CONTRACTION SEARCH 234   Rapid Recognition of Words 234 High-Frequency Words 235 Strategies for Teaching Function Words 237 LANGUAGE-EXPERIENCE STRATEGY 238 WORD WALLS 238 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINT 238 WORD GAMES 239 LITERATURE AND POETRY 239 Teaching Key Words 239 GROUP ACTIVITIES WITH KEY WORDS 239   Balancing Word Identification Instruction 240   What About Struggling Readers and Word Identification? 241   What About Standards, Assessment, and Word Identification? 242   Summary 243 Teacher Action Research 244 Related Web Sites 245 MyEducationLab 245 CHAPTER 8 Reading Fluency 246 Defining Oral Reading Fluency 249 Immediate Word Identification 249 Automaticity 250 Predictability of Reading Materials 251   Developing Oral Reading Fluency 252 Repeated Readings 252 Paired Repeated Readings 255 PEER TUTORING 255 Automated Reading 257 Choral Reading 258 Reader’s Theater 260 Involving Parents 264   Routines for Fluency Development 265 Monitoring Oral Reading Fluency 265 Developing Silent Reading Fluency 269 Sustained Silent Reading 270 Putting SSR into Action 271   What About Struggling Readers and Reading Fluency? 272   What About Standards, Assessment, and Reading Fluency? 272   Summary 273 Teacher Action Research 274 Related Web Sites 274 MyEducationLab 275     CHAPTER 9 Vocabulary Knowledge and Concept Development 276 The Relationship Between Vocabulary and Comprehension 279   Experiences, Concepts, and Words 281 Words as Labels for Concepts 282 Words and Concepts: A Closer Look 282 Class, Example, and Attribute Relationships 283   Principles to Guide Vocabulary Instruction 285 Principle 1: Select Words That Children Will Encounter While Reading Literature and Content Material 286 KEY WORDS 286 USEFUL WORDS 286 INTERESTING WORDS 287 VOCABULARY-BUILDING WORDS 287 Principle 2: Teach Words in Relation to Other Words 287 Principle 3: Teach Students to Relate Words to Their Background Knowledge 288 Principle 4: Teach Words in Prereading Activities to Activate Knowledge and Use Them in Postreading Discussion, Response, and Retelling 288 Principle 5: Teach Words Systematically and in Depth 289 Principle 6: Awaken Interest in and Enthusiasm for Words 289   Best Practice: Strategies for Vocabulary and Concept Development 290 Relating Experiences to Vocabulary Learning 291 Using Context for Vocabulary Growth 292 Developing Word Meanings 292 SYNONYMS 293 ANTONYMS 293 MULTIPLE-MEANING WORDS 294 Classifying and Categorizing Words 294 WORD SORTS 295 CATEGORIZATION 296 CONCEPT CIRCLES 297 SEMANTIC MAPPING 297 ANALOGIES 299 PAIRED-WORD SENTENCE GENERATION 299 Developing Word Meanings Through Stories and Writing 301 SEMANTIC ANALYSIS TO WRITING 301 PREDICTOGRAM 303 Developing Independence in Vocabulary Learning 304 DICTIONARY USAGE 305 SELF-SELECTION STRATEGY 305 WORD KNOWLEDGE RATING 306   What About Struggling Readers and Vocabulary Knowledge? 306   What About Standards, Assessment, and Vocabulary Knowledge? 307   Summary 307 Teacher Action Research 308 Related Web Sites 308 MyEducationLab 309 CHAPTER 10 Reading Comprehension 310 Scaffolding the Development and Use of Comprehension Strategies 313 Active Comprehension and Asking Questions 313 Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest) 316 Question—Answer Relationships (QARs) 318 Questioning the Author (QtA) 319 Reciprocal Teaching 321 Think-Alouds 322   Developing Readers’ Awareness of Story Structure 324 Elements in a Story 325 Mapping a Story for Instructional Purposes 326 Building a Schema for Stories 329 READ, TELL, AND PERFORM STORIES IN CLASS 330 DON’T TEACH THE LANGUAGE OF STORY GRAMMAR AS AN END IN ITSELF 330 SHOW RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STORY PARTS 331 REINFORCE STORY KNOWLEDGE THROUGH INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES 331   Guiding Interactions Between Reader and Text 333 Directed Reading—Thinking Activity 336   KWL (What Do You Know? What Do You Want to Find Out? What Did You Learn?) 338 Discussion Webs 340 Story Impressions 342   ReadingComprehension and the Web 344   What About Struggling Readers and Reading Comprehension? 345   What About Standards, Assessment, and Reading Comprehension? 346   Summary 347 Teacher Action Research 347 Related Web Sites 348 MyEducationLab 349 CHAPTER 11 Reading—Writing Connections 350 Relationships Between Reading and Writing 352   Creating Environments for Reading and Writing 355   Connecting Reading and Writing 356 Using Journals (and E-Mail Correspondence) for Written Conversation 357 DIALOGUE JOURNALS 357 BUDDY JOURNALS 359 ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL) CONVERSATIONS 360 Using Journals to Explore Texts 362 DOUBLE-ENTRY JOURNALS 363 READING JOURNALS 364 RESPONSE JOURNALS 365 Alternative Strategies That Motivate Students to Write 366 GATHERING IDEAS 366 MULTIGENRE PROJECTS 366 WRITING NOTIFICATION 367 PLOT SCAFFOLDS 367   Establishing a Predictable Structure for Writing 370 Organizing the Writing Workshop 370 Guiding Writing (and Observing Reading) 372 REHEARSING 373 DRAFTING 373 REVISING 373 EDITING 375 PUBLISHING 376   Reading—Writing—Technology Connections 376 Word Processing 379 Desktop Publishing and Multimedia Authoring 380 Children’s Books and Technology 381   What About Struggling Readers and Reading—Writing Connections? 383   What About Standards, Assessment, and Reading—Writing Connections? 383   Summary 384 Teacher Action Research 384 Related Web Sites 387 MyEducationLab 387 CHAPTER 12 Bringing Children and Literature Together 388 Supporting a Community of Readers 391 Surrounding Children with Literature 392 Selecting a Classroom Collection of Books 393 CHOOSING CLASSROOM LITERATURE 394 DETERMINING GOOD LITERATURE 395 LITERATURE WITH MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVES 396 WHY MULTICULTURAL LITERATURE? 396 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING MULTICULTURAL LITERATURE 400 DESIGNING THE CLASSROOM LIBRARY 400 Listening to Literature 401 CHOOSING LITERATURE TO READ ALOUD 401 PREPARING TO READ ALOUD 402 SETTING THE MOOD 402 INTRODUCING THE STORY 402 ACTIVITIES AFTER READING ALOUD 403 ALLOWING OTHERS TO PRESENT LITERATURE 403 Storytelling 403 SELECTING THE STORY TO TELL 403 PREPARING A STORY FOR TELLING 404 Helping Children Select Books 405   Organizing for Literature-Based Instruction 407 Core Books 407 Literature Units 407 Reading Workshops 407 SPARKING INTEREST 408 MINILESSONS 408 STATUS-OF-THE-CLASS REPORT 408 SUSTAINED SILENT READING 408 INDIVIDUAL READING CONFERENCES 408 GROUP SHARING TIME 408 Literature Circles 408 STUDENT-LED LITERATURE CIRCLES: HOW AND WHAT TO SHARE 410 ADAPTING LITERATURE CIRCLES FOR THE PRIMARY GRADES 411 INTEGRATION OF THE INTERNET 413   Encouraging Responses to Literature 413 Sparking Discussion with Book Talks 415 Engaging in Free Response 416 Exploring Response Options in Literature Journals 417   What About Struggling Readers and Literature? 419   What About Standards, Assessment, and Literature? 420   Summary 420 Teacher Action Research 421 Related Web Sites 422 MyEducationLab 423 CHAPTER 13 Basal Readers and Instructional Materials 424 The First Basals 427 Basal Programs Today 427   Characteristics of Basal Readers 433 Appearance 435 Illustrations 435 Stereotyping 435 Language Style 435 Workbooks 436 Lesson Framework 436 MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND BUILDING 438 GUIDED READING (SILENT AND ORAL) 439 SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICE 439 FOLLOW-UP AND ENRICHMENT 439   Making Instructional Decisions 440 Modifying Lessons 441   Instructional Materials 442 Electronic Materials 444 WORLD WIDE WEB 444 E-MAIL, DISCUSSION GROUPS, AND BLOGS 444 WORD PROCESSORS 444 SOFTWARE PROGRAMS 445 ELECTRONIC BOOKS 445 EDUCATIONAL GAMES 445 Beliefs About Reading and Instructional Materials 445 Selecting Reading Materials 446 Evaluating Reading Materials 448   What About Struggling Readers and the Basal Reader? 451   What About Standards, Assessment, and the Basal Reader? 451   Summary 452 Teacher Action Research 452 Related Web Sites 453 MyEducationLab 453 CHAPTER 14 Making the Transition to Content Area Texts 454 Why Are Content Area Textbooks Difficult? 457 Factors in Judging the Difficulty of Textbooks 459 HOW DIFFICULT IS THE TEXT TO UNDERSTAND? 459 HOW USABLE IS THE TEXT? 460 HOW INTERESTING IS THE TEXT? 460 Readability 461 LIMITATIONS 461 FRY READABILITY GRAPH 461   Using Literature and Nonfiction Trade Books Across the Curriculum 463 Some Uses and Benefits of Literature and Nonfiction Trade Books 463 INTENSE INVOLVEMENT 463 SCHEMA BUILDING 464 ABILITIES AND INTERESTS 464 VOCABULARY BUILDING 465 Planning to Use Literature and Informational Text in Content Area Learning 466 THE SINGLE-DISCIPLINE MODEL 466 THE INTERDISCIPLINARY MODEL 467 THE INTEGRATIVE LITERATURE MODEL 467 Additional Considerations for Implementing Literature and Informational Text in the Content Areas 468 INFORMATIONAL TEXT TYPES 468 READING THE TEXTS 469 STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION WITH INFORMATIONAL TEXTS 469 Learning with Electronic Texts 472     Strategies Before Reading 473 Previewing and Skimming 473 SKIMMING 475 Organizers 475 Anticipation Guides 476 Brainstorming 478   Extending Content Learning Through Reading and Writing 479 Point-of-View Guides 479 Idea Circles 479 Curriculum-Based Reader’s Theater 482 I-Charts 482 Internet Inquiry 484   What About Struggling Readers and Content Area Texts? 487   What About Standards, Assessment, and Content Area Texts? 488   Summary 488 Teacher Action Research 489 Related Web Sites 490 MyEducationLab 491 CHAPTER 15 Managing and Organizing an Effective Classroom 492 Improving Instruction 494 Classroom Teachers of Reading 495 STANDARDS 495 INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES 495 Collaborative and Cooperative Learning 497 COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND THE TEACHER’S ROLE 498 EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION AND THE TEACHER’S ROLE 499   Individualizing Instruction 500 What Is Individualized Instruction in Reading? 500 Influences of Individualized Instruction 501 GROUPS 501 MATERIALS 502   Putting It All Together: Organizing a Classroom Community 503 Multiage Classrooms 504 Creating a Physical Environment 505 LEARNING CENTERS 507 ROOM DIAGRAMS 508 STUDENT SCHEDULES 508 RECORD KEEPING 510 PORTFOLIO SYSTEMS 512 Technology in the Literate Classroom 512 Technology-Based Instructional Considerations 515   What About Struggling Readers and Managing and Organizing an Effective Classroom? 516   What About Standards, Assessment, and Managing and Organizing an Effective Classroom? 517   Summary 518 Teacher Action Research 518 Related Web Sites 519 MyEducationLab 519   APPENDIX A Beliefs About Reading Interview 521 APPENDIX B The DeFord Theoretical Orientation to Reading Profile (TORP) 527 APPENDIX C Reading and Writing Accomplishments of Young Children by Grade Level 531 APPENDIX D Trade Books That Repeat Phonic Elements 535 APPENDIX E Annotated Bibliography of Read-Aloud Books for Developing Phonemic Awareness 537 APPENDIX F Recommended Books for Multicultural Reading Experiences 541 APPENDIX G International Reading Association Standards for Reading Professionals 549   Glossary 551 References 559 Name Index 577 Subject Index 581